Muzica Araba 1i3ld

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arabic_maqam http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arabic_scale

Arabic

music or Arab

music (Arabic:

‫ىقيسوملا‬

‫ةيبرعلا‬

– ALA-LC: al-mūsīqā

al-‘Arabīyah)

is

the music of the Arab World. Arabic music , while independent and very alive, has a long history of interaction with many other regional musical styles and genres. It is an amalgam of the music of the Arabs in the Arabian Peninsula and the music of all the peoples that make up the Arab World today. As was the case in other artistic and scientific fields, Arabs translated and developed Greek texts and works of music and mastered [1]

the musical theory of the Greeks(i.e. Systema ametabolon, enharmonium, chromatikon, diatonon). Contents [hide]











1 History

o

1.1 Pre-Islamic period

o

1.2 Early Islamic period



1.2.1 Al-Andalus



1.2.2 Influence of Arabic music

o

1.3 Sixteenth century

o

1.4 Female Harem

o

1.5 Male instrumentalists

2 Twentieth century

o

2.1 Early secular formation

o

2.2 Interaction with Western popular music



2.2.1 Franco-Arabic



2.2.2 Arabic R&B, reggae, and hip hop



2.2.3 Arabic electronica



2.2.4 Arabic jazz



2.2.5 Arabic rock

3 Musical regions

o

3.1 North Africa

o

3.2 Arabian Peninsula

o

3.3 Levant

4 Genres

o

4.1 Secular art music

o

4.2 Sacred music

5 Characteristics of Arabic music

o

5.1 Maqam system



5.1.1 Ajnas

o

5.2 More notes used than in Western scales



5.2.1 Regional scales



5.2.2 Practical treatment

o

5.3 Vocal traditions

o

5.4 Instruments and ensembles



6 See also



7 Sources



8 Further reading



9 Notes



10 References

[edit]History [edit]Pre-Islamic

period

Pre-Islamic Arabic music was similar to that of Ancient Middle Eastern music. Most historians agree that there existed distinct forms of music in the Arabian peninsula in the pre-Islamic period between the 5th and the 7th century AD. Arab poets of that time—called shu`ara' al-Jahiliyah (‫ )ةيلهاجلا ءارعش‬or "Jahili poets", meaning "the poets of the period of ignorance"—used to recite poems with a high notes. It was believed that Jinns revealed poems to poets and music to musicians.

[3]

[2]

The choir at the time served

as a pedagogic facility where the educated poets would recite their poems. Singing was not thought to be the work of these intellectuals and was instead entrusted to women with beautiful voices who would learn how to play some instruments used at that time such as the drum, theoud or the rebab, and perform the [3]

songs while respecting the poetic metre. The compositions were simple and every singer would sing in a single maqam. Among the notable songs of the period were the huda (from which the ghina derived), the nasb, sanad, and rukbani. [edit]Early

Islamic period

Both compositions and improvisations in

traditional

Arabic

music

are

based

on

the maqam system. Maqams can be realized with either vocal or instrumental music, and do not include a rhythmiccomponent. Al-Kindi (801–873 AD) was the first great theoretician of Arabic music. He proposed adding a fifth string to the oud and discussed the cosmological connotations of music.

[4]

He sured the achievement of

the Greek musicians in using the alphabetical annotation for one eighth.

[vague]

He published fifteen

treatises on music theory, but only five have survived. In one of his treatises the word musiqa was used for the first time in Arabic.

[5]

Abulfaraj (897–967) wrote great book about music Kitab al-Aghani is an encyclopedic collection of poems and songs that runs to over 20 volumes in modern editions by the 8th/9th-century litterateur . Al-Farabi (872-950) wrote a notable book on music titled Kitab al-Musiqi al-Kabir (The Great Book of Music). His pure Arabian tone system is still used in Arabic music.

[6]

Al-Ghazali (1059–1111) wrote a treatise on music in Persia which declared, "Ecstasy means the state that comes from listening to music". In 1252, Safi al-Din developed a unique form of musical notation, where rhythms were represented by geometric representation. A similar geometric representation would not appear in the Western world until 1987, when Kjell Gustafson published a method to represent a rhythm as a two-dimensional [7]

graph.

[edit]Al-Andalus Main article: Andalusian classical music By the 11th century, Moorish Spain had become a center for the manufacture of instruments. These goods spread gradually throughout , influencing French troubadours, and eventually reaching the rest

of

Europe.

The

English

words lute, rebec, organ and naker are

derived

from

[8][not in citation given] [9][vague]

Arabic oud, rabab, urghun and nagqara'. [edit]Influence of Arabic music

See also: Islamic contributions to Medieval Europe A number of musical instruments used in classical music are believed to have been derived from Arabic musical instruments: the lute was derived from the Oud, the rebec (ancestor of violin) from the rebab, the guitar from qitara, which in turn was derived from the Persian Tar, naker from naqareh, adufe from alduff, alboka from al-buq, anafil from al-nafir, exabeba from al-shabbaba (flute), atabal (bass drum) from al-tabl,

[10]

atambal

from al-tinbal,

the balaban,

the castanet from kasatan, sonajas [11]

azófar from sunuj al-sufr, the conical bore wind instruments, or musical [13]

zurna,

[12]

pipe),

the gaita from

the shawm and dulzaina from

de

the xelami from thesulami or fistula (flute the reed [14]

the ghaita, rackett from iraqya or iraqiyya,

instruments zamr and al-

geige (violin)

[15]

fromghichak,

and

[16]

the theorbo from the tarab.

The music of the troubadors may have had some Arabic origins. Ezra Pound, in his Canto VIII, famously declared that William of Aquitaine, an early troubador, "had brought the song up out of Spain / with the singers and veils...". In his study, Lévi-Provençal is said to have found four Arabo-Hispanic verses nearly or completely recopied in William's manuscript. According to historic sources, William VIII, the father of William, brought to Poitiers hundreds of Muslim prisoners.

[17]

Trend itted that the troubadours derived

their sense of form and even the subject matter of their poetry from the Andalusian Muslims.

[18]

The

hypothesis that the troubadour tradition was created, more or less, by William after his experience of Moorish arts while fighting with the Reconquistain Spain was also championed by Ramón Menéndez Pidal in the early 20th-century, but its origins go back to the Cinquecento and Giammaria Barbieri (died 1575) and Juan Andrés (died 1822). Meg Bogin, English translator of the female troubadors, also held this hypothesis, as did Idries Shah. Certainly "a body of song of comparable intensity, profanity and eroticism [existed] in Arabic from the second half of the 9th century onwards."

[19]

One possible theory on the origins of the Western Solfège musical notation suggests that it may have had Arabic origins. It has been argued that the Solfège syllables (do, re, mi, fa, sol, la, ti) may have been derived from the syllables of the Arabic solmization system Durr-i-Mufassal ("Separated Pearls") (dal, ra, mim, fa, sad, lam). This origin theory was first proposed by Meninski in his Thesaurus Linguarum

Orientalum (1680) and then by Laborde in his Essai sur la Musique Ancienne et Moderne (1780), while more recent ers include Henry George Farmer [edit]Sixteenth

[20]

and Samuel D. Miller.

[21]

century

Bartol Gyurgieuvits (1506–1566) spent 13 years as a slave in the Ottoman empire. After escaping, he published De Turvarum ritu et caermoniis in Amsterdam in 1544. It is one of the first European books to describe music in Islamic society. In India, the Islamic Mughal emperors ruled both Muslims and Hindus. The greatest of these, Akbar (1542–1605) had a team of at least fifty musicians, thirty-six of whom are known to us by name. The origins of the "belly dance" are very obscure, as depictions and descriptions are rare. It may have originated in pre-Islamic Arabia. Examples have been found from 200 BCE, suggesting a possible pre-Islamic origin. [edit]Female

Harem

Slavery was widespread around the world. Just as in the Roman empire, slaves were often brought into the Arab world from Africa. Black slaves from Zanzibar were noted in the 11th century for the quality of their song and dance. The "Epistle on Singing Girls", written by the Basra Mu'tazilite writer al-Jahiz in the 9th century CE, satirizes the excessive money that could be made by singers. The author mentions an Abyssinian girl who fetched 120,000 dinars at an auction - far more than an ordinary slave. A festival in the 8th century CE is mentioned as having fifty singing slave-girls with lutes who acted as back-up musicians for a singer called Jamilia. In 1893, "Little Egypt", a belly-dancer from Syria, appeared at the Chicago world's fair and caused a sensation. [edit]Male

instrumentalists

Musicians in Aleppo, 18th century.

Male instrumentalists were condemned in a treatise in 9 CE. They were associated with perceived vices such as chess, love poetry, wine drinking andhomosexuality. Many Persian treatises on music were burned by zealots. Following the invasion of Egypt, Napoleon commissioned reports on the state of Ottoman culture. Villoteau's reveals that there were guilds of male instrumentalists, who played to male audiences, and "learned females," who sang and played for women. The instruments included the oud, the kanun (zither) and the ney (flute). By 1800, several instruments that were first encountered in Turkish military bands had been adopted into European classical orchestras: the piccolo, the cymbal and the kettle drum. The santur, ahammered dulcimer, was cultivated within Persian classical schools of music that can be traced back to the middle of 19 CE. There was no written notation for the santur until the 1970s. Everything was learned face-to-face . [edit]Twentieth

century

[edit]Early

secular formation

Musicians in Aleppo, 1915.

In the 20th century, Egypt was the first in a series of Arab countries to experience a sudden emergence of nationalism, as it became independent after 2000 years of foreign rule. Turkish music, popular during the rule of the Ottoman Empire in the region, was replaced by national music. Cairo became a center for musical innovation. One of the first female singers to take a secular approach was Umm Kulthum, quickly followed by Lebanese singer Fairuz. Both have been popular through the decades that followed and both are considered legends of Arabic music. [edit]Interaction

with Western popular music

During the 1950s and the 1960s, Arabic music began to take on a more Western tone with such artists as Abdel Halim Hafez paving the way. By the 1970s several other singers had followed suit and a strand of Arabic pop was born. Arabic pop usually consists of Western styled songs with Arabic instruments and lyrics. Melodies are often a mix between Eastern and Western. Western pop music was also being influenced by Arabic music in the early 1960s, leading to the development of surf music, a rock music genre that later gave rise to garage rock and punk rock. Surf rock pioneer Dick Dale, a Lebanese American guitarist, was greatly influenced by the Arabic music he learnt from his uncle, particularly the oud and tarabaki drums, skills which he later applied to his electric guitar playing when recording surf rock in the early 1960s.

[22]

In the 1990s, several artists have taken up such a style including Amr Diab, Najwa Karam, Elissa, Nawal Al Zoghbi, Nancy Ajram, Haifa Wehbe,Angham, Fadl Shaker, Majida Al Roumi, Wael Kfoury, Asalah Nasri, Tamer

Housny, Myriam

Fares, Melhim

Zein, Carole

Samaha, Yara, Samira

Said,Hisham

Abbas, Kadhem Al Saher, Mostafa Amar, Ehab Tawfik, Mohamed Fouad, Diana Haddad, Mohamed Mounir, Latifa, Cheb Khaled, George Wassouf, Hakim, Fares Karam, Julia Boutros, and Amal Hijazi. In 1996,( Amr Diab - Habibi ya Nour El Ain ) was released, becoming a tremendous success not only in the Middle East nor the Arab world but throughout the entire world. The title track, and its English version "Habibi", was an international phenomenon, becoming a massive crossover hit. In this song Amr Diab has

mixed three music civilizations in one track. The Spanish music in flamenco music, French music by accordion solo and Arabic which showed in the playing of drums by Duff instrument and tamphits. This song opened the door in front of Arabic music in the way of internationality and to be popular all over the world. [edit]Franco-Arabic Part of a series on

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

V



T



E

A popular form of West meets East style of music, similar in many respects to modern Arabic Pop. This blend of western and eastern music was popularized as Franco-Arabic music by artists such as Dalida (Egypt), Sammy Clarke (Lebanon) and Aldo from Australia. Although Franco-Arabic is a term

used to describe many forms of cross-cultural blending between the West and the Middle East, musically the genre crosses over many lines as is seen in songs that incorporate Arabic and Italian, Arabic and French and, of course, Arabic and English styles and or lyrics. [edit]Arabic R&B, reggae, and hip hop Main article: Arabic hip hop There has also been a rise of R&B, reggae and hip hop influenced Arab music in the past couple of years. These songs usually feature a rapper in a traditional Arab pop song (such as Ishtar's song 'Habibi Sawah'). The Moroccan singer Elam Jay developed a contemporary version of the Gnawagenre that is fused with R&B which he named Gnawitone Styla. Another variation of contemporary Gnawa played in Morocco is introduced by Darga. Based in Casablanca, the group fuses Gnawa with Reggae. Political Reggae artists

such

Sbeit from Haifa (Originally

from

as TootArd from Iqrith)

started

the

occupied Syrian Golan

gaining

popularity

Heights andWalaa

in Palestine in

2011

after

the Youtube premiere of a song about the Arab Spring (mainly the Tunisian revolution), called "The Green Revolution", sung by them and an ensemble of Palestinian artists, most notable among them being Mahmoud Jrere of DAM. Notable is Shadia Mansour, a Palestinian British rapper known as "The First Lady of Arab Hip Hop." Much of her music focuses on the Palestinian cause. Also there is the Moroccan pop introduced by the Moroccan singer Ryan Belhsen who's mixing between the American and the Moroccan music in his songs. However certain artists have taken to using full R&B and reggae beats and styling such as Darine. This has been met with mixed critical and commercial reaction. As of now it is not a widespread genre. [edit]Arabic electronica Electronic dance music is another genre to come out into popularity, influenced by the styles of North America, Europe, Australia, and other Western countries. Often, songs in this genre would combine electronic musical instruments with traditional Middle Eastern instruments. Artists like Richii popularized this style with songs like "Ana Lubnaneyoun". Nightclubs in the Arab world that play this kind of music. [edit]Arabic jazz Another popular form of West meets East, Arabic jazz is also popular, with many songs using jazz instruments. Early jazz influences began with the use of the saxophone by musicians like Samir Suroor, in the "oriental" style. The use of the saxophone in that manner can be found in Abdel Halim Hafez's songs, as well as Kadim Al Sahir and Rida Al Abdallah today. The first mainstream jazz elements were incorporated into Arabic music by the Rahbani brothers. Fairuz's later work was almost exclusively made up of jazz songs, composed by her son Ziad Rahbani. Ziad Rahbani also pioneered today's oriental jazz movement, to which singers including Rima Khcheich, Salma El Mosfi, and (on occasion) Latifa adhere. We can also find a lot of jazz music in Mohamed Mounir's songs starting from his first album which it was in 1977. Arabic Jazz seems to meet many new kinds of composition since the end of the twenty century : 

Modal forms with Anouar Brahem and Rabih Abou Khalil



Mixed electric sound experiences with Dhafer Youssef



New pop jazz styles with Titi Robin and Toufic Farroukh



Other acoustic youth experiences with Hamdi Makhlouf, Amine & Hamza M'raihi and Jasser Haj Youssef

[edit]Arabic rock Rock music is popular all around the world, the Arab world being no exception. There have been many Arab rock bands along the years that fused rock, metal and alternative rock sounds with traditional Arab instruments. Arabic Rock has been gaining a lot of attention lately in the Middle East with bands like JadaL and Akher Zapheer of Jordan, Mashrou' Leila and Meen of Lebanon, Massar Egbari, Sahara, Wyvernand Cartoon Killerz of Egypt, Khalas and Chaos (band) of Palestine and Acrassicauda of Iraq. The band Hoba Hoba Spirit from Morocco is

also

gaining

popularity,

especially

in

the Maghrebiregion. Rachid

Taha,

an Algerian musician, plays a fusion of rock and raï. [edit]Musical

regions

The world of modern Arabic music has long been dominated by musical trends that have emerged from Cairo, Egypt. The city is generally considered a cultural center in the Arab world. Innovations in popular music via the influence of other regional styles have also abounded from Morocco to Saudi Arabia. In recent years, Beirut has become a major center, dictating trends in the development of Arabic pop music. Other regional styles that have enjoyed popular music status throughout the Arab world, including:

North Africa

Arabian Peninsula

Levant



Andalusian classical music



Adani





Chaabi (Algeria)



Ardha



Chaabi (Morocco)



Fann at-Tanbura



Al Jeel (Egypt)



Fijiri



Gnawa



Khaliji



Haqibah



Liwa



Malhun



Mizmar



Mezwed



M'alayah



Raï



Samri



Sawt



Yowla

Dabke

[edit]Genres [edit]Secular

art music

Secular

genres

include maqam

al-iraqi, andalusi

songs, qasidah, layali, mawwal, taqsim, bashraf, sama'i, tahmilah, dulab, sawt, pp. 55–108). [edit]Sacred

music

nubah, muwashshah, Fjiri and liwa (Touma

1996,

Arabic religious music includes Jewish (Pizmonim and Baqashot), Christian, and Islamic music. However, Islamic music, including the Tajwid or recitation of Qur'an readings, is structurally equivalent to Arabic secular music, while Christian Arab music has been influenced by Syriac Orthodox, Catholic, Greek Orthodox, Anglican, Coptic, and Maronite church music. (ibid, p. 152) [edit]Characteristics

of Arabic music

Much Arabic music is characterized by an emphasis on melody and rhythm, as opposed to harmony. [23]

There are some genres of Arabic music that are polyphonic, but typically, Arabic music ishomophonic.

Habib Hassan Touma (1996, p.xix-xx) submits that there are "five components" that characterize Arabic music: 1. The Arab tone system; that is, a musical tuning system that relies on specific interval structures and was invented by al-Farabi in the 10th century (p. 170) 2. Rhythmic-temporal structures that produce a rich variety of rhythmic patterns, known as awzan or "weight", that are used to accompany metered vocal and instrumental genres, to accent or give them form. 3. A number of musical instruments that are found throughout the Arab world that represent a standardized tone system, are played with generally standardized performance techniques, and display similar details in construction and design. 4. Specific social contexts that produce sub-categories of Arabic music, or musical genres that can be broadly classified as urban (music of the city inhabitants), rural (music of the country inhabitants), or Bedouin (music of the desert inhabitants)..." 5. An Arab musical mentality, "responsible for the esthetic homogeneity of the tonal-spatial and rhythmic-temporal

structures

throughout

the

Arab

world

whether composed or improvised,instrumental or vocal, secular or sacred." Touma describes this musical mentality as being composed of many things. [edit]Maqam

system

See also: Arabian maqam

A Maqam tone level example

Though it would be incorrect to call it a modal system, the Arabic system is more complex than that of [citation needed]

the Ancient Greekharmoniai.

The basis of Arabic music is the maqam (pl. maqamat), which

looks like the mode, but is not quite the same. The tonic note, dominant note, and ending note (unless modulation occurs) are generally determined by the maqam used. Arabic maqam theory as ascribed in literature over the ages names between 90 and 110 maqams, that are grouped into larger categories known as fasilah. Fasilah are groupings of maqams whose first four primary pitches are shared in common.

[24]

[edit]Ajnas Main article: Jins

The maqam consists of at least two ajnas, or scale segments. Ajnas is the plural form of jins, which in Arabic comes from the Latin word genus, meaning "type". In practice, a jins is either atrichord (three notes), a tetrachord (four notes), or a pentachord (five notes). A maqam usually covers only one octave (usually two ajnas), but can cover more. Like the melodic minor scale, some maqamat use different ajnas when descending and ascending. Due to continuous innovation and the emergence of new ajnas, and because most music scholars have not reached consensus on the subject, a solid figure for the total number of ajnas in use is uncertain. In practice, however, most musicians would agree there are at least eight major ajnas: rast, bayat, sikah, hijaz, saba,kurd, nahawand, and ajam, and commonly used variants such as nakriz, athar kurd, sikah beladi, saba zamzama. Mukhalif is a rare jins used almost exclusively in Iraq, and it is not used in combination with other ajnas. [edit]More

notes used than in Western scales

The main difference between the Western chromatic scale and the Arabic scales is the existence of many in-between notes, which are sometimes referred to as quarter tones, for the sake of simplicity. In some treatments of theory, the quarter tone scale or all twenty four tones should exist. According to Yūsuf Shawqī (1969), in practice, there are many fewer tones (Touma 1996, p. 170). Additionally, in 1932, at the Cairo Congress of Arab Music held in Cairo, Egypt - and attended by such Western luminaries as Béla Bartók and Henry George Farmer - experiments were done which determined conclusively that the notes in actual use differ substantially from an even-tempered 24-tone scale. Furthermore, the intonation of many of those notes differ slightly from region to region (Egypt, Turkey, Syria, Iraq). [edit]Regional scales As a result of these findings, the following recommendation was issued: "The tempered scale and the natural scale should be rejected. In Egypt, the Egyptian scale is to be kept with the values, which were measured with all possible precision. The Turkish, Syrian, and Iraqi scales should remain what they are..." (translated in Maalouf 2002, p. 220).

[citation needed]

Both in modern practice, and evident in recorded

music over the course of the last century, several differently-tuned "E"s in between the E-flat and Enatural of the Western Chromatic scale are used, that vary according to the types of maqams and ajnas used, and the region in which they are used. [edit]Practical treatment Musicians and teachers refer to these in-between notes as "quarter tones," using "half-flat" or "half-sharp" as a designation for the in-between flats and sharps, for ease of nomenclature. Performance and teaching of the exact values of intonation in each jins or maqam is usually done by ear. It should also be added, in reference to Habib Hassan Touma's comment above, that these "quarter-tones" are not used everywhere in the maqamat: in practice, Arabic music does not modulate to 12 different tonic areas like the Well-Tempered Klavier. The most commonly used "quarter tones" are on E (between E and E♭), A, B, D, F (between F and F♯) and C. [edit]Vocal

traditions

Arab classical music is known for its famed virtuoso singers, who sing long, elaborately ornamented, melismatic tunes, and are known for driving audiences into ecstasy. Its traditions come from pre-

Islamic times, when female singing slaves entertained the wealthy, inspired warriors on the battlefield with their rajaz poetry, and performed at weddings. [edit]Instruments

and ensembles

Front and rear views of an oud.

The prototypical Arabic music ensemble in Egypt and Syria is known as the takht, and includes, (or included at different time periods) instruments such as the 'oud, qānūn,rabab, ney, violin (introduced in the 1840s or 50s), riq and dumbek. In Iraq, the traditional ensemble, known as the chalghi, includes only two melodic instruments—the jowza (similar to the rabab but with four strings) and santur—accompanied by the riq and dumbek. The Arab world has incorporated instruments from the West, including the electric guitar, cello, double bass and oboe, and incorporated influences from jazz and other foreign musical styles. The singers have remained the stars, however, especially after the development of the recording and film industry in the 1920s in Cairo. These singing celebrities are the biggest stars in Arabic classic music, they include Farid Al Attrach, Asmahan, Abd el-Halim Hafez, Sayed Darwish, Mohammed Abd el-Wahaab, Warda AlJazairia and Umm Kulthum. [edit]See

also



Arabic poetry



Byzantine music



Durood



Hamd



Islamic music



Islamic poetry



Mawlid



Mehfil



Middle Eastern music



Music of Africa



Music of Asia



Music of Southeastern Europe



Na'at



Nasheed



Pizmonim



Sufi music



Sufi poetry



Sufism



History of Sufism

[edit]Sources 

Shireen Maalouf (2002). History of Arabic Music Theory: Change and Continuity in the Tone Systems, Genres, and Scales. Kaslik, Lebanon: Université Saint-Esprit.



Peter van der Merwe (1989). Origins of the Popular Style: The Antecedents of Twentiet.h-Century Popular Music. Oxford: Clarendon Press. ISBN .



Habib Hassan Touma (1996). The Music of the Arabs, trans. Laurie Schwartz. Portland, Oregon: Amadeus Press. ISBN 1-57467-081-6.

[edit]Further 

reading

Lodge, David and Bill Badley. "Partner of Poetry". 2000. In Broughton, Simon and Ellingham, Mark with McConnachie, James and Duane, Orla (Ed.), World Music, Vol. 1: Africa, Europe and the Middle East, pp 323–331. Rough Guides Ltd, Penguin Books. ISBN



Shiloah, Amnon. Music in the World of Islam. A Socio-Cultural Study 2001. ISBN



Julián Ribera y Tarragó. La música árabe y su influencia en la española (1985). ISBN -X (Spanish)



Fernández Manzano, Reynaldo. De las melodías del reino nazarí de Granada a las estructuras musicales cristianas. La transformación de las tradiciones Hispano-árabes en la península Ibérica. 1984.

ISBN: 8450511895 http://www.bibliotecavirtualdeandalucia.es/catalogo/catalogo_imagenes/grupo.cmd?path=10 02977 

Fernández Manzano, Reynaldo y Santiago Simón, Emilio de (Coordinación y supervisión ed.). Música y Poesía del Sur de al-Andalus. 1995. ISBN: 8477823359



Fernández Manzano, Reynaldo.: La música de al-Andalus en la cultura medieval, imágenes en el tiempo, Granada, Universidad e Granada, 2012.

ISBN: 9788490280935 http://hdl.handle.net/10481/21906 [edit]Notes

1.

^ Habib Hassan Touma - Review of Das arabische Tonsystem im Mittelalter by Liberty Manik.

2.

^ Singing in the Jahili period - khaledtrm.net (Arabic)

3.

^

4.

^ Farmer 1988, pp. 241, 257

5.

^ Saoud, R.. "The Arab Contribution to the Music of the Western World" (PDF). FSTC. Retrieved 2007-01-

a b

12.

ibid.

6.

^ Habib Hassan Touma (1996), The Music of the Arabs, p. 170, trans. Laurie Schwartz, Portland, Oregon: Amadeus Press, ISBN 0-931340-88-8

7.

^ Toussaint, Godfried (August 2004), A Comparison of Rhythmic Similarity Measures, 5th International Conference on Music Information, retrieved 2009-07-06

8.

^ Smith, Douglas Alton (2002). A History of the Lute from Antiquity to the Renaissance. ISBN ISBN 09714071-0-X.

9.

^ "Asian Music 32, no. 1: Tribal Music of India". Retrieved 2010.

10. ^ Farmer 1988, p. 137 11. ^ Farmer 1988, p. 140 12. ^ Farmer 1988, pp. 140–41 13. ^ Farmer 1988, p. 141 14. ^ Farmer 1988, p. 142 15. ^ Farmer 1988, p. 143 16. ^ Farmer 1988, p. 144 17. ^ M. Guettat (1980), La Musique classique du Maghreb (Paris: Sindbad). 18. ^ J. B. Trend (1965), Music of Spanish History to 1600 (New York: Krause Reprint Corp.) 19. ^ John Stevens, Ardis Butterfield, and Theodore Karp, "Troubadours, trouvères", The New Grove Dictionary of Music and Musicians, second edition, edited by Stanley Sadie and John Tyrrell (London: Macmillan Publishers, 2001). 20. ^ Farmer 1988, pp. 72–82 21. ^ Miller, Samuel D. (Autumn 1973), "Guido d'Arezzo: Medieval Musician and Educator", Journal of Research in Music Education 21 (3): 239–45, doi:10.2307/3345093, JSTOR 3345093 22. ^ Holgate, Steve (14 September 2006). "Guitarist Dick Dale Brought Arabic Folk Song to Surf Music". The Washington File. Bureau of International Information Programs, U.S. Department of State. Retrieved 29 August 2010. 23. ^ "Arabian

music"

on

the

on-line

edition

of

The

Columbia

Encyclopedia,

Sixth

Edition,

at

www.encyclopedia.com 24. ^ http://www.musiq.com/makam/page0.html Musiq.com

[edit]References 

Farmer,

Henry

George (1988), Historical

facts

Publishing, ISBN 0-405-08496-X, OCLC 220811631 Arabian Music source: http://www.ournia.co [show]

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V

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T

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E

Arab singers

for

the

Arabian

Musical

Influence,

Ayer

[show]

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V

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Middle Eastern music [show]

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Traditional Arabic musical instruments

Arabic maqam From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

For Ottoman Turkish makams, see Makam. Arabic maqam (Arabic: ‫ م قام‬/ ALA-LC: maqām; pl. maqamat) is the system of melodic modes used in traditional Arabic music, which is mainly melodic. The word maqam in Arabic means place, location or rank. The Arabic maqam is a melody type. It is "a technique of improvisation" that defines the pitches, patterns, and development of a piece of music and which is "unique to Arabian art music."

[1]

There are

[1]

seventy two heptatonic tone rows or scales of maqamat. These are constructed from major, neutral, [1]

and minor seconds (see Arab tone system). Each maqam is built on a scale, and carries a tradition that defines

its

habitual

phrases,

Both compositions and improvisations in

important notes, traditional

melodic Arabic

development music

are

and modulation. based

on

the maqam system. Maqamat can be realized with either vocal or instrumental music, and do not include a rhythmic component.

An essential factor in performance is that each maqam describes the "tonal-spatial factor" or set of musical notes and the relationships between them, including traditional patterns and development of melody, while the "rhythmic-temporal component" is "subjected to no definite organization."

[2]

A maqam

does not have an "established, regularly recurring bar scheme nor an unchanging meter. A certain rhythm does sometimes identify the style of a performer, but this is dependent upon his performance technique [2]

and is never characteristic of the maqam as such." The compositional or rather precompositional aspect of the maqam is the tonal-spatial organization including the number of tone levels and the improvisational aspect is the construction of the rhythmic-temporal scheme.

[2]

Contents [hide]



1 Background



2 Tuning system



3 Notation



4 Intonation

o

4.1 Phases and central tones



4.1.1 Nucleus



5 Ajnas



6 Maqam families



7 Emotional content



8 Modulation



9 See also



10 Further reading



11 Sources



12 External links

[edit]Background The designation maqam appeared for the first time in the treatises written in the fourteenth century by alSheikh al-Safadi and Abdulqadir al-Maraghi, and has since then been used as a technical term in Arabic music. The maqam is a modal structure that characterizes the art of music of countries in North Africa, the Near East and Central Asia. In this area we can distinguish three main musical cultures which all belong to the maqam modal family, Arabic, Persian, and Turkish. [edit]Tuning

system

The notes of a maqam are not of equal temperament (meaning that the frequency ratios of successive pitches are not identical one to the next, unlike in the chromatic scale used in modern Western music). A maqam also determines other things, such as the tonic (starting note), the ending note, and the dominant note. It also determines which notes should be emphasized and which should not.

[3]

Arabic maqams are based on a musical scale of 7 notes that repeats at the octave. Some maqams have 2 or more alternative scales (e.g. Rast, Nahawand and Hijaz). Maqam scales in traditional Arabic music

are microtonal, not based on a twelve-tone equal-tempered musical tuning system, as is the case in modern Western music. Most maqam scales include a perfect fifth or a perfect fourth (or both), and all octaves are perfect. The remaining notes in a maqam scale may or may not exactly fall on semitones. For this reason maqam scales are mostly taught orally, and by extensive listening to the traditional Arabic music repertoire. [edit]Notation Since microtonal intervals are impractical to accurately notate, a simplified musical notation system was adopted in Arabic music at the turn of the 20th century. Starting with a chromatic scale, the Arabic scale is divided into 24 equal quarter tones, where a quarter tone equals half a semitone in a 12 tone equaltempered scale. In this notation system all notes in a maqam scale are rounded to the nearest quarter tone. This system of notation is not exact since it eliminates microtonal details, but is very practical because it allows maqam scales to be notated using Western standard notation. Quarter tones can be notated using the

half-flat

sign

or

the

half-sharp

sign .

When

transcribed

with

this

notation

system

some maqam scales happen to include quarter tones, while others don't. In practice, maqams are not performed in all chromatic keys, and are more rigid to transpose than scales in Western music, primarily because of the technical limitations of Arabic instruments. For this reason, half-sharps rarely occur in maqam scales, and the most used half-flats are E , B and less frequently A . [edit]Intonation The 24-tone system is entirely a notational convention and does not affect the actual precise intonation of the notes performed. Practicing Arab musicians, while using the nomenclature of the 24-tone system (half-flats and half-sharps), still perform the finer microtonal details which have been ed down through oral tradition. Maqam scales that do not include quarter tones (e.g. Nahawand, `Ajam) can be performed on equaltempered instruments such as the piano, however such instruments cannot faithfully reproduce the microtonal details of the maqam scale. Maqam scales can be faithfully performed either on fretless instruments (e.g. the oud or the violin), or on instruments that allow a sufficient degree of tunability and microtonal control (e.g. the nay or the qanun, or the Clarinet). On fretted instruments with steel strings, microtonal control can be achieved by string bending, as when playing blues. The exact intonation of every maqam scale changes with the historical period, as well as the geographical region (as is the case with linguistic accents, for example). For this reason, and because it is impractical to precisely and accurately notate microtonal variations from a twelve-tone equal tempered scale, maqam scales are in practice learned orally. [edit]Phases

and central tones

Each age consists of one or more phases which are sections "played on one tone or within one tonal area," and may take from seven to forty seconds to articulate. For example, a tone level centered on g:

[4]

The tonal levels, or axial pitches, begin in the lower and gradually rise to the highest at the climax before descending again, for example (in European-influenced notation):

[5]

"When all possibilities of the musical structuring of such a tone level have been fully explored, the phase is complete."

[5]

[edit]Nucleus The central tones of a maqam are created from two different intervals. The eleven central tones of the maqam used in the phase sequence example above may be reduced to three which make up the "nucleus" of the maqam:

[6]

The tone rows of maqamat may be identical, such as maqam bayati and maqam 'ushshaq turki:

but be distinguished by different nuclei. Bayati is shown in the example above, while 'ushshaq turki is:

[edit]Ajnas See also: Jins Maqam scales are made up of smaller sets of consecutive notes that have a very recognizable melody and convey a distinctive mood. Such a set is called jins (pl. ajnas), meaning

"gender" or "kind". In most cases, a jins is made up of four consecutive notes (tetrachord), although ajnas of three consecutive notes (trichord) or five consecutive notes (pentachord) also exist. Ajnas are the building blocks of a maqam scale. A maqam scale has a lower (or first) jins and an upper (or second) jins. In most cases maqams are classified into families or branches based on their lower jins. The upper jins may start on the ending note of the lower jins or on the note following that. In some cases the upper and lower ajnas may overlap. The starting note of the upper jinsis called the dominant, and is the second most important note in that scale after the tonic. Maqam scales often includes secondary ajnas that start on notes other than the tonic or the dominant. Secondary ajnas are highlighted in the course of modulation. References on Arabic music theory often differ on the classification of ajnas. There is no consensus on a definitive list of all ajnas, their names or their sizes. However the majority of references agree on the basic 9 ajnas, which also make up the main 9 maqam families. The following is the list of the basic 9 ajnas notated with Western standard notation (all notes are rounded to the nearest quarter tone): `Ajam (‫ )عجن‬trichord, starting Bayati (‫يات ي‬ on B♭ starting

‫ )ب‬tetrachord, Hijaz (‫ )حجاز‬tetrachord, starting on D on D

Kurd (‫ )ك رد‬tetrachord, starting Nahawand (‫ )ن ياًن د‬tetrachord, Nikriz (‫ )ن كري س‬pentachord, starting on starting D on on C C

Sikah (‫ ) س ي كاه‬trichord, starting on Rast (‫)را ست‬ tetrachord, Saba (‫ ) ص با‬tetrachord, starting starting on on C ED

(for more detail see Arabic Maqam Ajnas) [edit]Maqam Bayati

families

Hijaz

Jiharkah

Husayni `Ushayran

Rast

Problems listening to these files? See media help.

Shad `Araban

Huzam

Nawa Athar

Rahat al-Arwah

Saba

Problems listening to these files? See media help.



`Ajam - `Ajam (‫)عجن‬, Jiharkah (‫)جيارك اه‬, Shawq Afza ( ‫ اف سا شٌق‬or ‫)أف سا شٌق‬



Sikah - Bastah Nikar (‫)ن كار ب س تو‬, Huzam (‫)ىسام‬, `Iraq (‫)عراق‬, Musta`ar (‫)ه س ت عار‬, Rahat al-Arwah (‫ االرًا ح راحة‬or‫)األرًا ح راحة‬, Sikah (‫) س ي كاه‬, Sikah Baladi (‫)ب لدي س ي كاه‬



Bayati - Bayatayn (‫ين‬

‫يات‬

‫)ب‬, Bayati (‫يات ي‬

‫)ب‬, Bayati Shuri (‫يات ي‬

‫) شٌري ب‬,

Husayni (‫)ح س ي ني‬, Nahfat (‫)ن ي فت‬ 

Nahawand - Farahfaza (‫)ف رح فسا‬, Nahawand (‫)ن ياًن د‬, Nahawand Murassah (‫ هرص ن ياًن د‬or ‫ن ياًن د‬



‫)هر ص‬, `Ushaq Masri (‫)ه صري ع شاق‬

Rast - Mahur (‫)هاىٌر‬, Nairuz (‫)ن ٌرًز‬, Rast (‫)را ست‬, Suznak (‫) سٌزن اك‬, Yakah (‫)ي كاه‬



Hijaz - Hijaz (‫)حجاز‬, Hijaz Kar (‫)ك ار حجاز‬, Shad `Araban (‫)عرب ان شد‬, Shahnaz (‫ شي ناز‬or ‫) شاى ناز‬, Suzidil (‫) سٌزدل‬, Zanjaran (‫)زن جران‬



Saba - Saba (‫) ص با‬, Saba Zamzam (‫)زهسم ص با‬



Kurd - Kurd (‫)ك رد‬, Hijaz Kar Kurd (‫)ك رد ك ار حجاز‬



Nawa Athar - Athar Kurd (‫)ك رد أث ر‬, Nawa Athar (ٌٍ ‫ أث ر ن‬or ٌٍ ‫)اث ر ن‬, Nikriz (‫)ن كري س‬

[edit]Emotional

content

It is sometimes said that each maqam evokes a specific emotion or set of emotions determined by the tone row and the nucleus, with different maqams sharing the same tone row but differing in nucleus and thus emotion. Maqam Rast is said to evoke pride, power, soundness of mind, and masculinity. Bayati: vitality, joy, and feminity.

[7]

Sikah: love.

[7]

[8]

Saba: sadness and pain. Hijaz: distant desert.

[7]

Maqam

[7]

In an experiment where maqam Saba was played to an equal number of Arabs and non-Arabs who were asked to record their emotions in concentric circles with the weakest emotions in the outer circles, Arab subjects reported experiencing Saba as "sad", "tragic", and "lamenting," while only 48 percent of the nonArabs described it thus with 28 percent of non-Arabs describing feelings such as "seriousness", "longing", and tension," and 6 percent experienced feelings such as "happy", "active", and "very lively" and 10 percent identified no feelings.

[8]

These emotions are said to be evoked in part through change in the size of an interval during a maqam presentation. Maqam Saba, for example, contains in its first four notes, D, E-quarter-flat, F, and Gb, two medium seconds one larger (160 cents) and one smaller (140 cents) than a three quarter tone, and a minor second (95 cents). Further, E-quarter-flat and G-flat may vary slightly, said to cause a "sad" or "sensitive" mood.

[9]

Generally speaking, each maqam is said to evoke a different emotion in the listener. At a more basic level, each jins is claimed to convey a different mood or color. For this reason maqams of the same family are said to share a common mood since they start with the same jins. There is no consensus on exactly what the mood of each maqam or jins is. Some references describe maqammoods using very vague and subjective terminology (e.g. maqams evoking 'love', 'femininity', 'pride' or 'distant desert'). However, there

has not been any serious research using scientific methodology on a diverse sample of listeners (whether Arab or non-Arab) proving that they feel the same emotion when hearing the same maqam. Attempting the same exercise in more recent tonal classical music would mean relating a mood to the major and minor modes. In that case there is some consensus that the minor scale is "sadder" and the major scale is "happier," but only for audiences pre-conditioned to this association. Attempting the same exercise in older modal classical music with Dorian, Phrygian, Lydianand Mixolydian modes might have produced similar results in audiences of those periods.

[citation needed]

[edit]Modulation Modulation is a technique used during the melodic development of a maqam. In simple it means changing from one maqam to another (compatible or closely related) maqam. This involves using a new musical scale. A long musical piece can modulate over many maqams but usually ends with the starting maqam (in rare cases the purpose of the modulation is to actually end with a new maqam). A more subtle form of modulation within the same maqam is to shift the emphasis from one jins to another so as to imply a new maqam. Modulation adds a lot of interest to the music, and is present in almost every maqam-based melody. Modulations that are pleasing to the ear are created by adhering to compatible combinations of ajnas and maqams long established in traditional Arabic music. Although such combinations are often documented in musical references, most experienced musicians learn them by extensive listening. [edit]See

also



Raga



Mujawwad



Ali Merdan



Makam



The Iraqi Maqam



melisma



Pizmonim



The Weekly Maqam



Taqsim



Mugham



Dastgah [edit]Further



reading

el-Mahdi, Salah (1972). La musique arabe : structures, historique, organologie. Paris, : Alphonse Leduc, Editions Musicales. ISBN 2-85689-029-6.



Lagrange, Frédéric (1996). Musiques d'Égypte. Cité de la musique / Actes Sud. ISBN 2-7427-0711-5.



Maalouf, Shireen (2002). History of Arabic music theory. Lebanon: Université Saint-Esprit de Kaslik. OCLC 52037253.



Marcus, Scott Lloyd (1989). Arab music theory in the modern period (Ph.D. dissertation). Los Angeles: University of California. OCLC 20767535.



Racy, Ali Jihad (2003). Making Music in the Arab World: The Culture and Artistry of Ṭarab. Publisher: Cambridge ; New York: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-521-30414-8. [edit]Sources

1.

^

a b c

Touma, Habib Hassan (1996). The Music of the Arabs, p.38, 203, trans. Laurie Schwartz. Portland, Oregon:

Amadeus Press. ISBN 0-931340-88-8. a b c

2.

^

3.

^ Touma 1996, p.38-9

4.

^ Touma 1996, p.40.

5.

^

6.

^ Touma 1996, p.42.

7.

^

a b c d

8.

^

a b

9.

^ Touma 1996, p.45.

a b

Touma, 1996 p.38.

Touma 1996, p.41.

Toumas 1996, p.43.

Touma 1996, p.44.

[edit]External

links



Maqam World



Maqam World: What is a Maqam?



Arab Maqamat



Sephardic Pizmonim Project- Jewish use of Maqamat



Historical audio examples from different maqams, Arabic. [hide]



V



T



E

Oral and Intangible Heritage of Humanity: music



Aka polyphony



Albanian folk iso-polyphony



Angklung



Arabic maqam



Ashik



Ashiqs of Azerbaijan



Baul music



Bećarac



Bistritsa Babi



Dainichido Bugaku



Beijing opera



Cantonese opera



Cantu a tenore



Ca trù



Doina



Duduk



Fado



Fujara



Gagaku



Gagok



Garifuna music



Georgian polyphonic singing



Guqin



Hua'er



Hudhud chants



Istrian scale



Kgal Laox



Koodiyattam



Kumi Odori



Kunqu



Lhamo



Long song



Maloya



Maqam al-iraqi



Meshrep



Morin khuur



Muqam



Nanyin



Nhã nhạc



Ojkanje singing



Pansori



Pirekua



Quan họ



Radif



Sama



Samba de roda



Shashmaqam



Silbo Gomero language



Sutartinės



The Song of Sana’a



The Song of the Sibyl



Vedic chant



Wayang kulit