How To Teach Linking Words. 74j19

Linking words – learner problems • Meaning of individual connectors. They don’t really have meanings. They are usually classified into broad discourse functions e.g: – Additive: in addition, moreover, furthermore, besides, likewise – Contrast (Adversative): however, nevertheless, in contrast, on the other hand, despite this – Causal: therefore, consequently, thus – Sequential: then, next, first, to sum up – Concessive: although, even though, while

• But this just confuses learners and then they mix them up. They are not interchangeable: – Jim wanted to fly to the moon. However/Nevertheless/Despite this/ , he didn’t know how.

Linking words – learner problems • Students have most problems with contrast and concession. (Not normally done in everyday spoken language; students write like they speak until taught otherwise; easy to avoid). • Key battle grounds: – However vs. Nevertheless – On the other hand vs. In contrast – Therefore (vs. Consequently)

Meaning of linking words • Nevertheless vs. However – X implies Y. X is true but Y is not true. – Nevertheless requires a situation in which one is led to expect one thing but finds something different to be true. – John has always been a top language student. Nevertheless he failed French this term. – John has always been a top language student. Nevertheless he failed Maths this term. However, ‘however’ works for both. Use it generically wherever attention drawn to difference.

Meaning of linking words • On the other hand vs. In contrast. • On the other hand – X (a) on the other hand X (b) • In contrast – X (a) in contrast Y (b) • London is cold in the winter. ________ Melbourne is warm. • London is cold in the winter. ________ it is not so full of tourists.

• ‘On the other hand’ is often used for good/bad and advantages/disadvantages. Should be limited to these contexts and not taught as a substitute for ‘however’.

Meaning of linking words • Therefore vs. Consequently. - Overuse of ‘therefore’ is a problem. - It only works when the listener/reader would naturally expect the conclusion or when all info necessary to follow argument is provided by speaker/writer - We hadn’t eaten all day. Therefore, we decided to have dinner at McDonald’s - We hadn’t eaten all day. Therefore, we decided to have dinner before going out. - Consequently is used to signal causal relationship where reader/listener can’t predict: - Essien won the lottery; consequently he bought an island.

Meaning of linking words • Moreover vs. Furthermore. - Has to be the right . IELTS essay is fine, narrative not. - Similar use: arguments where several premises are used to a conclusion. Difference is ‘Furthermore’ tends to be used after the 3rd or 4th premise (where more than 2)

For both of these there needs to be a conclusion. For a list (e.g. of actions) use ‘and’ (plus ‘in addition, ‘also’ for variation)

Meaning of linking words • Although, even though, while - Basically means ‘Yes, but…’ - Speaker/writer grants truth of X while pushing truth of Y to make Y truth more important than X truth.

- So less important truth goes with although etc