Fallacies In Legal Reasoning s2c36

FALLACIES IN LEGAL REASONING

GROUP 4

FALLACY Ilagan, Richard E.

Mistake or error in thinking and

reasoning Defect in reasoning Something not ed by facts Can either be intentional and unintentional

FORMAL AND INFORMAL FALLACIES

Formal fallacies  Those that may be identified through mere

inspection of the form and structure of an argument  A defect in the form of an argument  Can be found only in deductive arguments that have identifiable forms  Always a deductive invalid argument

Valid argument (Modus pedens)

1. If it is snowing,

then it must be called outside. 2. It is snowing. 3. Therefore, it is cold outside.

→If A then B →A →Therefore B

Invalid argument (affirming the consequent)

1.If it is snowing,

then it must be cold outside. 2.It is cold outside. 3.Therefore, it must be snowing.

→ If A then B →B →Therefore A

1. If someone is allergic to peanuts,

then she does not eat peanut butter. 2. Berns does not eat peanut butter. 3. Therefore, Berns is allergic to peanuts.

1.All humans are

mammals. 2.All cats are mammals. 3.Therefore, all humans are cats.

→ All A are C → All B are C → Then, all A are B

Informal fallacies  One that can be detected only

through analysis of the content of the argument  Defect in the content or meaning of argument  Can affect both deductive and inductive argument

Example: “It’s just right to give this student a ing mark. You see, he is troubled by serious family problems at present. His family cannot afford his education; it’s his aunt who pays his tuition fee. If he fails in Logic, he might not be ed anymore by his aunt.”

1. All students with

serious family problems should not be given a failing mark. 2. Chad is a student with serious family problems. 3. Therefore, Chad should not be given a failing mark.

→ All A are B → All C are A →Therefore, all C are B

1.You can use sharp things to cut paper. 2.Blanche has a sharp mind. 3.Therefore, you can cut paper with Blanche’s mind.

1. Normally, birds can fly. 2. A penguin is a bird. 3. Therefore, penguin can fly.

Fallacies of Ambiguity Justine Blanche Vera Cruz and Del Mark Hernandez

1. EQUIVOCATION this fallacy consists in leading an opponent to an unwarranted conclusion by using a term in its different senses and making it appear to have only one meaning.

in a good argument, the word or phrases used must retain the same meanings throughout the argument, unless we specify that we are shifting from one meaning of a word to another.

1. EQUIVOCATION  one who commits this fallacy either intentionally or carelessly allowed a key word to shift in meaning in the middle of the argument, while giving the impression that all instances of the word have the same meaning. This kind of deception is particularly difficult to detect in long arguments, in which the transition in meaning is not noticeable.

1. EQUIVOCATION Example: Gambling should be legalized because it is something we can’t avoid. It is an integral part of human experience; people gamble every time they get in their cars or decide to get married.

Congressmen can create or abolish laws. The law of supply and demand is law. Therefore, congressmen can abolish the law of supply and demand.

1. EQUIVOCATION  Due to the vulnerability of language to being interpreted in multiple ways, it is important for the court to always go back to the context in which the language in the law has been formulated. The problem of linguistic ambiguity in the law can be avoided by such approach.

2. AMPHIBOLY  This fallacy consists in presenting a claim or argument whose meaning can be interpreted in two or more ways due to its grammatical construction. In equivocation, ambiguity comes from changing meanings of the word; in amphiboly ambiguity comes from the way the sentence is constructed. The double meaning lies not in the word but in the syntax or grammatical construction.

2. AMPHIBOLY Example: I give and bequeath the sum of Php 500,000 to my nieces Angeline Ramos and Rose Perez. The loot and the car were listed as stolen by the Manila Police District.

2. AMPHIBOLY  A statement is amphibolous when its meaning is indeterminate because of the loose or awkward way in which its words are combined. An amphibolous statement may be true in one interpretation and false in another. When it is stated as premise with the interpretation that makes it true, and a conclusion is drawn from it on interpretation that makes it false, the fallacy of amphiboly has been committee.

3. IMPROPER ACCENT  This fallacy consists in misleading people by placing improper emphasis on a word, phrase or particular aspect of an issue or claim. The fallacy of improper accent is found not only in ments and headlines but also in other very common forms of human discourse.

3. IMPROPER ACCENT  A headline may cause the reader to infer a conclusion other than the one ed in the article that follows. An ment for a product may address the quality but not the exorbitant cost of a product or may focus on the advantages of a service but fail to mention an important downside of that service. A news article may tell us what one party in a court dispute said about the case but not what the other party said about the same aspect of the case. In all these cases, the writer or speaker places an accent on a selected feature of an issue that may cause another to come to an unwarranted conclusion about it.

3. IMPROPER ACCENT Example: “ President to Declare Martial Law” This fallacy of accent also includes the distortion produced by pulling a quoted age out of context, putting it in another context, and then drawing a conclusion that is not drawn original context. Example: This politician is really bent on amending the Constitution in order to extend his term of office. On one occasion he said: “There is a need to revise some provisions in the Constitution.”

3. VICIOUS ABSTRACTION  This fallacy consists in misleading the people by using vague or abstract . This fallacy occurs when vague words are misused.; vague words are misused when these words are very significant in the premises usedto establish a conclusion.

•How to deal with this kind of fallacy? •Sense if our opponent is attempting to a particular claim with a atatement containing a vague word •Challenge the acceptability of the premises on the grounds that you cannot assess the evidential value of the

3. VICIOUS ABSTRACTION  How to deal with this kind of fallacy? • Sense if our opponent is attempting to a particular claim with a atatement containing a vague word • Challenge the acceptability of the premises on the grounds that you cannot assess the evidential value of the . • disagree with your opponent about the appropriateness of the precision that he or she may assign to it,

Fallacies of Irrelevance Mary Bernadette Beldad and Jhelisa Samson

1. Argumentum Ad Hominem This fallacy ignores the issue by focusing on certain personal characteristics of an opponent. Instead of addressing the issue presented by an opponent, this argument makes the opponent the issue. It shifts attention from the argument to the arguer.

Argumentum Ad Hominem TWO KINDS: 1. Abusive This fallacy attacks the argument based on the arguer's reputation, personality or some personal shortcoming. Ex. X's statement must be wrong because X is a socialist. Very common in the court rooms as well as in election campaigns where people employ techniques such as name calling and mudslinging to persuade others to their side.

Abusive Argumentum Ad Hominem Example: According to this action star, he s the death penalty because it is an effective deterrence against murder. This is nonsense. He is just an actor and knows nothing about death penalty. Besides, he likes violence as shown by his many movies which depict a lot of killings.

Abusive Argumentum Ad Hominem Attempt to persuade people by banking on the psychological impact of their arguments. Law: arguing against the character or background of the person can be valid in situations when the credibility of the witness is at issue. It is important that a distinction be made between the argument and the testimony of the person. The personality, character or background of the person should not count when we assess the strength of his/her arguments.

Argumentum Ad Hominem 2. Circumstantial Also called, “Tuo quoque” means you're another or you yourself do it. This fallacy consists in defending one's position by accusing his or her critic or other people of doing the same thing. Ex. Mom: Jenny don't have any romantic relationship while you're still in college. Jenny: But Mom, you and dad were already in a relationship when you are college students

Circumstantial Argumentum Ad Hominem  “two wrongs don't make it right” It is illogical to absolve one's self of his or her own guilt by saying that the opponent has done the same thing nor to justify one's behavior on the basis that the other person or group exhibits the same behavior.

Circumstantial Argumentum Ad Hominem Example: I don't think the opposition party has a valid reason for criticizing the move of the present istration to privatize government-run industries. When the opposition party was in power in the previous regime, it sold several government companies like NAPOCOR and MWSS to the private sector

Circumstantial Argumentum Ad Hominem Law: this fallacy can sometimes be used to as an effective or valid defense in matters of provocation; it is limited to situations where the plaintiff bore “at least substantially equal responsibility for his injury” and where the parties' culpability arose out of the same illegal act. The fallacy occurs when the argument moves from in rem to an argument alleging wrongness or improper conduct on the party who alleged wrongdoing on our part. Confront the argument head on rather than attempting to refute it by attacking our opponent's circumstance.

Argumentum Ad Misericordian Appeal to pity. Ex: Think of all the poor, starving people in Ethiopia. How can we not help them? This fallacy convinces the people by evoking feelings of comion and sympathy when such feelings, however understandable, are not logically relevant to the arguer's conclusion. Many trial lawyers have the tendency to resort to this fallacy in their closing speech to add persuasive force to their case.

Argumentum Ad Misericordian Example: Public Schools, K through 12, need to have much easier exams for students because teachers don't fully realize the extent of the emotional repercussions of the sorrow and depression of the many students who could score much better on easier exams.

2. Argumentum Ad Misericordian Example: "Your Honor, my incarceration is cruel and unusual punishment. First, my prison-issued shower sandals are grossly undersized. Secondly, the prison book club consists mainly of prisoners who club me with books." (Sideshow Bob in "Day of the Jackanapes." The Simpsons, 2001)

3. Argumentum Ad Baculum (Appeal to Force) Persuading others to accept a position by using threat or pressure instead of presenting evidence Creates fear to people which leads them to agree with the argument

Argumentum Ad Baculum (Appeal to Force) Example: -Cabinet Secretary to Congressman: “The President wants the Congress to this bill. I think you have to it. Of course, you don’t want Malacañan to reduce your PDAF which will finance your infrastructure projects in your town.”

Argumentum Ad Baculum (Appeal to Force) Ignores the real issue -Whether the bill should be ed or not Premises have no bearing on the merit of their conclusions

Argumentum Ad Baculum (Appeal to Force)

BUT Sometimes it is right to point out dire consequences that a particular course of action can bring about Example: “You must not stay late at night at the party. There is a lot of danger in travelling late at night. You might get raped or robbed.”

4. Petitio Principii (Begging the Question) Designed to persuade people by means of the wording of one of its premises Conclusion is not justified clearly by the premises and in effect, “begged” to be accepted Evidence is a form of conclusion in disguise

Petitio Principii (Begging the Question) Types: -Arguing in Circle -Question Begging Language -Complex Question -Leading Question

Arguing in Circle Assumes as a premise the very thing that should be proven in the conclusion Makes use of its conclusion to serve as its premise Argument presupposes the truth of its conclusion

Arguing in Circle GINA:

This person has committed bribery

JEFF: What reasons do you have that will convince me that your claim is true? GINA: Because he tried to influence a public official by giving money

Arguing in Circle Circular argument pretends to establish a claim Falls short of proving its conclusion since the strength of premise depends on truth of the conclusion which cannot be assumed A is true because A is true

Question-Begging Language Discussing an issue by means of language that assumes a position of the very question at issue, in such a way as to direct the listener to that same conclusion Prematurely assumes that a matter is or may be at issue has already been settled Listener is subtly being “begged” to infer a particular conclusion although no good reasons are presented

Complex Question Consists in asking a question which some presuppositions are buried in that question “loaded question” More than one question is being asked in what appears to be a single question

Leading Question Directing to give a particular answer to a question at issue by manner in which the question is asked Contains an uned claim Unjustifiably assumes a position on what is probably a debatable (or open) issue

Fallacies of Insufficient Evidence Iman Lucman and Stephanie Sy

1. Argumentum Ad Antiquum (Appeal to the Ages) This fallacy attempts to persuade others of a certain belief by appealing for their feelings of reverence or respect for some tradition, instead of giving rational basis for such belief. This is illogical since pointing out that a particular practice has the status of a tradition sheds no light on whether it should be followed or not. This is especially true in cases when holding to a tradition threatens to prevent a solution that enlightened reflection s. Any positive aspects that a tradition may embody must be weighed against the damage that it may inflict.

Argumentum Ad Antiquum (Appeal to the Ages) For Example: 1. I don’t understand why the Church allowed cremation of the dead. In our time, we have not been taught to burn the bodies of our dead loved ones. It was not done when my lolo and lola died, as well when tatay and nanay died. We should not also do that to any of our relatives. 2. There is nothing wrong with kaingin. Our forefathers have practiced it since time immemorial. Do you mean to tell that they were wrong all the while?

Argumentum Ad Antiquum (Appeal to the Ages) In the first example, the speaker argues that cremation is wrong on the grounds that such practice is not in accordance with the traditional beliefs. In the second example, the practice of kaingin is defended on the basis of what was traditionally done. The reasoning is fallacious because what was true before may not be true at present. Given the social, cultural and even physical changes in our society and the world at large, what may be acceptable in the past may not be acceptable today, just as what was not acceptable then may be acceptable now.

2. Argumentum Ad Verecundiam (Appeal to Inappropriate Authority) This fallacy consists in persuading other by appealing to people who command respect or authority but do not have legitimate authority in the matter at hand. An authority in a particular field is one who has sufficient knowledge of the matters belonging to that field, is qualified by training or ability to draw appropriate inferences from that knowledge, and is free from any prejudices or conflicts of interest that would prevent him or her from formulating sound judgments.

Argumentum Ad Verecundiam (Appeal to Inappropriate Authority) There is nothing wrong with appealing to judgment of qualified authorities in a field of knowledge as a means of ing some particular claim related to that field. When a psychiatrist or a clinical psychologist is called upon to shed light on the state of sanity of the accused, there is nothing inappropriate about relying on their authority. But when the “authority” on whose judgment the argument rests fails to meet the stated criteria, the argument should be regarded as fallacious.

Argumentum Ad Verecundiam (Appeal to Inappropriate Authority) For example:

The doctrine of biological evolution cannot be true for it contradicts the biblical of creation, the church fathers never accepted it and the fundamentalists explicitly condemn it. What is wrong in the argument is its reliance on certain influential authorities who, although respected and looked upon by many people, are not the appropriate authority on this matter as the issue is not about morals and religion but about science.

Argumentum Ad Verecundiam (Appeal to Inappropriate Authority)

Another type of inappropriate authority is a biased one. Some people may be qualified in a particular field by training, ability and position, yet they are so vitally “interested” in or affected by the issue at stake the there would be good reason to treat their testimony with suspicion.

Argumentum Ad Verecundiam (Appeal to Inappropriate Authority) An example of this is a portion of a news program of the TV network NBN or the National Broadcasting Network. This portion named “Legal Opinion” features a well-known lawyer giving his views and insights on certain legal issues confronting the country. At the outset, there seems to be nothing logically wrong with this set-up. The lawyer definitely is an expert authority on the matter being talked about – the legality of particular actions, policies or practices.

Argumentum Ad Verecundiam (Appeal to Inappropriate Authority) However, since many of the issues being presented in this portion have to do with government decisions and policies, the lawyer has the tendency to make a biased or partial opinion on these matters since he is working under a government-run TV network. Given his circumstances, he cannot be render an objective judgment or express an unbiased views lest he put himself in danger of losing his job in the TV program.

Argumentum Ad Verecundiam (Appeal to Inappropriate Authority)  Thus, in determining whether the fallacy of inappropriate authority is present, one has to pay attention on the background or circumstances of the supposed authority being relied on with regard t o a particular issue.

3. Accident  This fallacy consists in applying a general rule to a particular case when circumstances suggest that an exception to the rule should apply. General rules usually have their exceptions. This is especially true in the law. This fallacy occurs when such general rules are applied to special circumstances. The application of the general rule is inappropriate because of the situation’s “accident,” or exceptional facts.

Accident  Aldisert noted that in the law of evidence there are many exceptions to the hearsay rule: a dying declaration, a statement against interest or a statement of personal or family history. To apply the general hearsay rule to these exceptions is to commit the fallacy of accident or dictosimpliciter.

Accident Example: Freedom of speech is a constitutionally guaranteed rights. Therefore, Leo Beltran should not be arrested for his speech that incited the riot last week. In this argument, the general rule is that freedom of speech is normally guaranteed, and the specific case is the speech made by Leo Beltran. Because the speech incited a riot, the rule does not apply.

Accident  One way of pointing out the fallacious character of a particular misapplication of a principle or rule is to examine very carefully the purpose of the principle or rule and then to discuss how exceptions would be in order when that purpose is not being violated or when it is superseded by more important, conflicting principle, then try to show in the particular case that either the exception is not inconsistent with the purpose of the principle or that there is more important principle at stake.

Accident  However, exceptions to the rules are sometimes explicitly stipulated in the law. Thus, the lawyer must become familiar with exceptions (or “accidents”) in the applicaton of the law. He or she must meticulously check the quotations in his or her opponent’s brief, because it may set forth a general rule, but omit the central conditional clause: “Except for circumstances A, B and C, the general rule is….”

Accident

To avoid committing the fallacy of accident, it is very important to understand the nuances of the law to determine what are the cases where a certain provision applies and the cases it is not applicable of.

CHAPTER 5 Stephanie Ruth Sy | Group 4

HASTY GENERALIZATION (Converse Accident)

Drawing a GENERAL or UNIVERSAL conclusion from insufficient particular case

Example: A survey of the of the Moro Islamic Liberation Front (MILF) and their families showed that more than 85% of them favor the proposal to have a separate independent government in Mindanao, 10% disapprove of it, while 5% are undecided. These survey results clearly shows that majority of Filipino Muslims the said proposal.

ARGUING FROM IGNORANCE (Argumentum Ignorantiam)

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A Fallacy That Consists In Assuming That A Particular Claim Is True Because Its Opposite Cannot Be Proven.

Example:

Since Science cannot prove that breathing the same air as an AIDS victim will not result in the spread of the virus, children with AIDS should not be allowed to attend public schools.

FALSE DILEMMA

This Fallacy arises when the Premise of an Argument presents us with a Choice between two Alternatives and assumes that they are exhaustive when in fact they are not.

Many people are protesting the implementation of warrant-less arrest. I think it is just right for that can facilitate the military’s crackdown on terrorist groups. You surely don’t want terrorism to prevail in our country.

Example: